The Flower of Life symbol

 

Flower of Life Symbol – What Does It Really Mean? | SymbolSage

Symbol Sage

May 27, 2022  #sacredgeometry #floweroflife

The Flower of Life is a Sacred Geometric shape that has recently gained popularity around the world and is used in numerous ways. What makes it so unique and fascinating is its endless layers of meaning not only as a whole symbol but also when broken down into the various forms and symbols contained within. At first glance, however, it appears to be a collection of many interlocking circles with various shapes and patterns emerging from this.

This symbol is one of the original sacred geometry shapes and dates back to 535 BC. Throughout history it has been found in various locations of significance such as at the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Louvre, the Forbidden City, and in various ancient Chinese temples, to name a few.

Although it has been around for so long, it was given its name only in the 1990s which created a renewed interest in it.

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A variation of the Flower of Life symbol---called the Sole delle Alpi (Sun of the Alps)---was adopted by Lega Nord as their party symbol, as well as for the flag of Padania. According to the Fiore a sei Petali Wikipedia page: The six-petalled flower (also called: shepherd's rose, Carolingian rose, Celtic rose, star-flower, rosette star, flower of the Alps, star of the Alps, sun of the Alps), is a geometric figure having hexagonal symmetry. The symbol has long been present in Cisalpine symbolism, heraldry, and architecture. I used to have an image of this symbol looking absolutely perfect at the top of an ancient Roman column, but I lost it during a loss of thousands of images, media, data etc... years ago. Unfortunately, I never could find that image again.

Sun of the Alps

Fiore a sei petali

The Story of Creation Through Sacred Geometry

The Ancient Secret of the Flower of Life ~ Spirit Science 6

The church of S.Egidio and the Sun of the Alps symbol

Above: The six-petal flower on some old architecture in Erbanno, Val Camonica, Brescia. Check the "Fiore a sei petali" and "The church of S.Egidio and the Sun of the Alps symbol" links above for a number other examples of the sun of the Alps on old Cisalpine architecture and symbolism. These are centuries old! Just like the term Padane, this symbol is nothing new to the Cisalpine region!

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Italy STUNNED as Salvini wins majority and says a "NEW Europe is born"

'European elections: Italy STUNNED as Salvini wins majority and says a "NEW Europe is born" '

MATTEO SALVINI's Lega Nord (League) Party has claimed a convincing European Parliament victory, in a shock result in Italy.

Clive Hammond - Express (UK) - May 27, 2019

The group has around 32 percent of the vote so far on the night, way ahead of the Democratic Party. Interior minister Matteo Salvini leads League, which came third in the 2018 general election. Following his victory, Mr Salvini said in Milan: “A new Europe is born.

“I am proud that the League is participating in this new European renaissance.”

He said previously: “As far as I'm concerned, if the League wins nothing changes in Italy, everything will change in Europe, starting from tomorrow.”

The head of the party’s Senate Riccardo Molinari added: “The League has probably become the top party in Italy.”

con't....

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Current Miss Padania, Serena Bignami, wearing an American t-shirt

Serena Bignami is a native of Lodi, Lombardy.

Miss Padania 2012 video

Miss Padania Wikipedia page












Miss Padania video site

We also have a "Lodi" in Northern California as well. One of it's famous residents was Robert Mondavi.

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Alberto da Giussano and Barbarossa - Part VIII: Company of Death

This is a part eight of the Barbarossa series from last fall, during the release of the Italian movie 'Barbarossa'. This movie may be available for download at a few pay movie downloading sites, but it would probably be better to just wait probably two more months for the DVD. Let us know if you find a good source in the meantime.

Company of Death (Wikipedia)

The Company of Death is the name used in the historical literature of English language for two related chosen tactical corps, two selected bands of warriors, entrusted to guarantee the cohesiveness and efficiency in battle of both the Milanese and Lombard League's militias through their bound by oath to the defence of the Milanese Carroccio, the wagon on which the standard of the Lombard allies stood.

They fought in the Battle of Legnano (29 May 1176) against the imperial army of Frederick I Barbarossa Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, in his 5th Italian Campaign, and were determinant in his decisive defeat.

The two corps who formed the Company of Death were the Company of the Carroccio, an infantry unit of 300 men, and the real and effective Company of Death, a cavalry unit of 900 men, commanded according to tradition by Alberto da Giussano.

The Company of the Carroccio

The Company of the Carroccio, was an infantry unit of 300 men, all of them young volunteers (forming a societas) and Milanese, sworn by oath to die in defence of the Milanese Carroccio. They fought as phalanx in a Sheltron formation around their "Sacred wagon", armed with a large shield and a lanzalonga.

The Knights of Death

The Company of Death, also known in some sources till the late 19th century as the Knights of Death, is the name of a temporary military association of medieval knights (a temporary societas), not historically well documented, which according to tradition was organized and equipped by a leader known as Alberto da Giussano. It had a great importance during the Battle of Legnano (29 May 1176) where it defended the Carroccio of the Lombard League against the imperial army of Frederick I Barbarossa.

The company was assembled in haste, depriving the Lombard infantry of the valuable support of enough heavy cavalry, "horse" were recruited by Alberto da Giussano around Brescia, and in other eastern areas of Lombardy that had contributed less in infantry and trails to the League. The knights would not be understood in the medieval and romantic sense, but as mere "mounted on horseback" or also "light cavalry." They were very probably particularly cruel and fierce "professional, or semi-professional, fighters," apt at wreaking havoc in the enemy ranks.

According to Milanese chronicler Galvano Fiamma it was composed of 900 men at arms but other sources and modern scholars reduce that number to 300 or, more probably, 500.

According to tradition they wore a sort of dark suit (black and gray, cut vertically) connected at the sides, to cover the armour, with probably the symbol of the skull on the traditional small pointed wooden shields.

Their motto or battle cry could have been, accordingly to poorly documented but reliable sources, "Ambroeus!" (Which is however in stark contrast with the origin of many of them, allegedly Brescia).

As a demonstation of the Company's rapid formation and specific use and role during the Battle of Legnano, after the battle there is no further information about its continued existence.

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Alberto da Giussano and Barbarossa - Part VII: The Carroccio

Carroccio

A Carroccio was a war chariot drawn by oxen, used by the medieval republics of Italy. It was a rectangular platform on which the standard of the city and an altar were erected; priests held services on the altar before the battle, and the trumpeters beside them encouraged the fighters to the fray.

In battle the Carroccio was surrounded by the bravest warriors in the army and it served both as a rallying-point and as the palladium of the city's honour; its capture by the enemy was regarded as an irretrievable defeat and humiliation. It was first employed by the Milanese in 1038, and played a great part in the wars of the Lombard League against the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. It was afterwards adopted by other cities, and first appears on a Florentine battlefield in 1228.

The Florentine Carroccio was usually followed by a smaller cart bearing the Martinella, a bell to ring out military signals. When war was regarded as likely the Martinella was attached to the door of the Church of Santa Maria in the Mercato Nuovo in Florence and rung to warn both citizens and enemies. In times of peace the Carroccio was in the keeping of a great family which had distinguished itself by signal services to the republic.

The carro della guerra of Milan was described in detail in 1288 by Bonvesin de la Riva in his book on the "Marvels of Milan". Wrapped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen that were caparisoned in white with the red cross of Saint George, the city's patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship's mast.

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I looked it up again and the opening date, in Italy, for 'Barbarossa' is October 9. Of course, we need to find out when it opens in the United States, and we will just have to make a point to monitor this. It could be a month, or several months.

Alberto da Giussano and Barbarossa - Part VI: Battle of Legnano

With October now here, and this month being the release date of the upcoming Italian movie 'Barbarossa', here is another segment of our Alberto Giussano and Barbarossa series: The Battle of Legnano. There probably should be an entry just for the "Oath of Pontida," which was the event which united the city-states into the Lombard League, but there wasn't an adequate text in English. It was one of the most brutal wars of the last millennium: The Holy Roman Empire versus The Lombard League.

Battle of Legnano

The Battle of Legnano was fought on May 29, 1176, between the forces of the Holy Roman Empire, led by emperor Frederick Barbarossa, and the Lombard League.

The Lombard League

The Lombard League was formed in 1167, largely out of the Veronese League. It was a Union of Lombard cities promising each other unity, against the Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. The Lombardy cities swore the oath at Pontida, a small village in Lombardy.

After the disastrous defeat of Pope Alexander III at the Battle of Monte Porzio in May 1167 against Imperial forces, the Lombard League remained as the last legitimate fighting force opposing the Emperor and was therefore heavily backed by the Pope.

Kenneth Pennington wrote: "Alexander’s inability to control Rome and the Papal States was due to his conflict with Frederick. Although he attempted to support the cities of Lombardy, he had neither the power nor the resources to render effective assistance."

[Right: The "Oath of Pontida," painted by Amos Cassioli]

Frederick's 5th Italian Campaign

In September 1174, Frederick embarked on his 5th Italian Campaign, to quench the constant revolts in Lombardy and his quarrels with Pope Alexander III. Frederick led a force of 8,000 knights over the Alps and arrived in Piedmont in late September. His cousin Henry the Lion and his forces, were once again not a part of the Imperial campaign. Frederick wanted to take revenge on Susa, for its "evil" behaviour of 1168, and on the 30 September his forces captured and burned down the town. His next aim was the town of Asti, which he captured after a seven day siege. In October, Frederick finally received the promised Imperial reinforcements from Bohemia. Upon Frederick's rapid and fierce initial success, Margraviate William of Montferrat and the Count of Biandrate, abandoned the Lombard League.

Siege of Alessandria

The siege of Alessandria was an important event in Frederick's 5th Campaign as this was a campaign of revenge, with the aim of the total destruction of the Lombard League and the removal of the Pope Alexander III. Frederick's next goal was therefore the Lombard city of Alessandria. Alessandria was founded by Milanese refugees, who fled after Frederick's forces burned and destroyed the City of Milan in 1162 and named after Pope Alexander III. The siege of the "Straw City", called so because all the roofs were covered with straw, began at the end of October. To Frederick's surprise and anger, his forces were not able to take the city so he had to spend the winter in front of its gates. On Holy Saturday, Fredericks forces managed to enter the city by digging tunnels under its walls, but the attack was repulsed by the Milanese with heavy losses. Alessandria withstood, and that was the first victory of the Lombard League. Frederick had to break off the siege due to an advancing Lombard army and retreated to Pavia.

Treaty of Montebello

On 16 April 1175, Frederick and the Lombard League negotiated peace at the Castle of Montebello but after long talks, negotiations broke with no result. Frederick knew that a battle was imminent and traveled to Chiavenna to meet Henry the Lion. Henry the Lion however refused to help his cousin as he thought that Frederick's defeat would allow him to obtain greater power.

The Battle

After Frederick's setback at Alessandria, the failed agreement of Montebello and the refusal of his cousin Henry the Lion to help him, Frederick finally received some good news and reinforcements from Germany. The German reinforcements crossed Lukmanier Pass into the Lake Como region in April 1176. Frederick I Barbarossa, Philipp I of Heinsberg and Archbishop Wichmann of Magdeburg rode secretly from Pavia along the Ticino River, to meet the reinforcements and to lead them to a joint operation with his main forces. Frederick received 1,000 knights and 1,000 foot soldiers from 16 different German rulers. At Como, Lombard imperialist allies increased the reinforcements to about 3,000 knights and foot soldiers, however, the Imperial army was largely a cavalry force of German knights.

[Left: Lombard knights looking for Fredrick's dead body]

The Milanese were informed about Frederick's plan and prepared for battle. A Carroccio, or a sacred war wagon drawn by oxen, was built and was decorated with the city standard and an altar upon which the cross of Archbishop Aribert of Milan was erected. In 1038, Archbishop Aribert led the victorious defence of Milan against the Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II, and therefore his cross was a symbol of victory against the Empire. According to Sire Raoul, a chronicler from Milan, 900 knights came from Milan and around 550 knights from three other towns, the rest of the League's forces were foot soldiers. The "Company of Death" was a foot soldier unit, that according to Milanese chronicles was led by Alberto da Giussano, and formed the core of the Lombard infantry. While Frederick and his reinforcements were on their way back to Pavia to join the main Imperial force, the Lombard League placed about 3,500 men near the west bank of the Olona. The infantry with the Milanese war cart, the carroccio, stood in a hastily fortified position at Borsano. The Lombards knew that Frederick was about to skirt through their area, however, the Lombards did not know how close Frederick already was. At dawn on the 29 May, the Lombard League sent a reconnaissance unit of 700 horsemen to the Seprio landscape. At the same time, the emperor had crossed the Olona and was marching south from Cairate, five miles northeast of Busto Arsizio. Here, the battle commenced. The Lombard reconnaissance and the 300 Imperial vanguard clashed. The clash was brief and bloody and with Frederick already on the horizon, the Lombard reconnaissance broke off and fled beyond Borsano. Now, Frederick and his Imperial German army launched a rampant and brutal attack on the Lombard League forces near Borsano - Legnano. The Lombard cavalry was largely routed but managed to escape the skirmish, leaving the infantry and carroccio on its own. Frederick advanced to the carroccio, and assaulted the infantry and the Company of Death with his cavalry.

M.B. Synge wrote this about the Company of Death: "Nine hundred desperate patriots forming the Company of Death defended the sacred car. Seeing the Germans were gaining ground, fearful for the safety of their treasure, they suddenly knelt down and renewed their vow to God that they would perish for their country."

The infantry positioned itself in a phalanx-like line. The fight around the carroccio was a long and bloody fight in which the Lombard League infantry brought the Imperial army to a stalemate. Despite the difficulties the Imperial cavalry had against the Lombard infantry, it would have still prevailed in the long run. Finally, the Lombard League forces received help from its regrouped cavalry and from a Brescian cavalry that was called to aid by the fleeing reconnaissance troops. The regrouped reconnaissance troops and the Brescian cavalry jointly attacked Frederick's army from the rear. The decisive assault was made by the Brescians, who managed to break through the lines and attack Frederick directly. In this attack, his guards and standard-bearer were killed, and Frederick was thrown off his horse and believed to be dead. Upon this, the Imperial troops panicked and fled, pursued to the Ticino by the Leagues cavalry. The generals tried to rally the men in vain. The booty and prisoners taken by the League were immense.

Aftermath

After the battle, Frederick's rule over Lombardy was decisively broken. The knights that managed to escape, gathered in Pavia. There, they brought the news of Frederick's presumed death to his wife Beatrice I, Countess of Burgundy. Beatrice and the Empire mourned Frederick's demise but after several days the Emperor appeared at the gates of Pavia.

H. E. Marshall wrote: "Then, greatly to the joy of all, after three days Barbarossa suddenly appeared before the gates of Pavia. Although wounded and bruised and left for dead Frederick had not been killed."

The victory of the Lombard League forced Frederick to travel to Venice. In the Peace of Venice, 1177, Frederick and Pope Alexander III reconciled. The Emperor acknowledged the Pope's sovereignty over the Papal States, and in return Alexander acknowledged the Emperor's overlordship of the Imperial Church. The Peace of Venice were heavily instigated by Archbishop Wichmann of Magdeburg, who was amongst the defeated at Legnano. The cities of Lombardy, however, continued to fight until 1183, when, in the Peace of Constance, Frederick conceded their right to freely elect town magistrates. The Treaty was cast in bronze.

Frederick did not forgive Henry the Lion for refusing to come to his aid in 1176. Taking advantage of the hostility of other German princes to Henry, Frederick had Henry tried in absentia by a court of bishops and princes in 1180, declared that Imperial law overruled traditional German law, and had Henry stripped of his lands and declared an outlaw.

On 27 January 1186, Frederick's son Henry VI married Constance of Sicily in Milan as a sign that peace had really been established.

Actual battlefield

The battle is traditionally tied to the name of Legnano, since the League's forces came from that town. Actually, as local historians have ascertained, the battle was fought a couple miles west of Legnano, where today Villa Cortese and Borsano, frazioni of Busto Arsizio, stand.

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"Nine hundred desperate patriots forming the Company of Death defended the sacred car. Seeing the Germans were gaining ground, fearful for the safety of their treasure, they suddenly knelt down and renewed their vow to God that they would perish for their country."

That country was not "Italy." I'm not going to argue about whether it should be called Cisalpine Gaul, Etruria, Langbard, Padania, or the Subalpine/Po River Valley; but it was a Nation. "Italy" should be "the Italian peninsula," just as there is "the British Isles," "the Balkins," "the Iberian peninsula," "Scandinavia," etc. So for clarity, it should be Europe, then for reference "northern, southern, Eastern, or southern Europe, and then these "regions."

Alberto da Giussano and Barbarossa - Part V: Lombard League

Lombard League (Wikipedia):

The Lombard League was an alliance formed around 1167, which at its apex included most of the cities of northern Italy (although its membership changed in time), including, among others, Milan, Piacenza, Cremona, Mantua, Crema, Bergamo, Brescia, Bologna, Padua, Treviso, Vicenza, Venice, Verona, Lodi, and Parma, and even some lords, such as the Marquis Malaspina and Ezzelino da Romano. The League was formed to counter the Holy Roman Empire's Frederick I, who was attempting to assert Imperial influence over Italy. Frederick claimed direct Imperial control over Italy at the Diet of Roncaglia (1158). The League had the support of Pope Alexander III, who also wished to see Imperial power in Italy decline. At the Battle of Legnano on May 29, 1176, Frederick I was defeated and, by the Peace of Venice, which took place in 1177, agreed to a six-year truce from August,1178 to 1183, until the Second Treaty of Constance, where the Italian cities agreed to remain loyal to the Empire but retained local jurisdiction over their territories.

The Lombard League was renewed several times and after 1226 regained its former prestige by countering the efforts of Frederick II to gain greater power in Italy. These efforts included the taking of Vicenza and the Battle of Cortenuova which established the reputation of the Emperor as a skillful strategist. He misjudged his strength, rejecting all Milanese peace overtures and insisting on unconditional surrender. It was a moment of grave historic importance when Frederick's hatred coloured his judgment and blocked all possibilities of a peaceful settlement. Milan and five other cities held out, and in October 1238 he had to unsuccessfully raise the siege of Brescia. Once again receiving papal support, the Lombard League effectively countered Frederick's efforts. During the 1249 siege of Parma, the Imperial camp was assaulted and taken, and in the ensuing Battle of Parma the Imperial side was routed. Frederick lost the Imperial treasure and with it any hope of maintaining the impetus of his struggle against the rebellious communes and against the pope. The League was dissolved in 1250 once Frederick died.

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The Following paragraph is from a book called 'Modern Italian grammar: a practical guide', and clarifies and simplifies a number of things:

"When, in 1152, Frederick I, known as Redbeard, became King of Germany, he decided to suppress the rebellious City States, He Carred out five raids in Italy; in the first (1154) he suppressed the rebellion in Rome, and had himself crowned emperor; in the second he conquered Milan and with due ceremony reaffirmed the rights of the emperor (1158) in the third he besieged and destroyed Milan (1163) in the fourth he occupied Rome (1168) and in the fifth he was defeated at Legnano by the Lombard League (an alliance between the City States, set up in Pontida in1167, and supported by Pope Alexander III). For this reason he was forced to recognize the freedom of the City States, with the peace treaty of Constance (1183)."

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The critics of Padanian identity have gone after trivial facts, to try to underscore the significance of events like the Battle of Legnano. For example, whether or not there was a specific "oath" taken at the formation of the Lombard League in Pontida, Lombardy. That's how the game is played. A people's history needs to be trivialized or absorbed and molded into what is "politically correct." For example, references to "the Italian League," or that it was "for Italian freedom" even though Italy never even existed before. If the history of other groups were to be attacked, it might be answered with calls of "bigotry" or "racism." However, if you're unfortunate enough to be "politically incorrect," then you don't receive this type of protection. You're on your own.

A perfect example of this is if we look at the War of the Sicilian Vespers. Historically, it is referred to as a struggle by the Sicilian people for Sicilian freedom, which it was. However, why is the Battle of Legnano any different? It was a war carried out by Lombardo-Venetian people for Lombardo-Venetian freedom. Why the double standard?

Alberto da Giussano and Barbarossa - Part IV: Holy Roman Empire

What this all boils down to is that most of the northern subalpine region was conquered and under the subjugation of a powerful German imperial power called the Holy Roman Empire, or what eight centuries later the German National Socialists would refer to as the "First Reich."

Rather than take this sitting down, the city-states of the newly occupied region formed an alliance called the "Lombard League" to oppose the Germanic empire. They were literally fighting for their freedom, just as some of their ancestors had done six centuries earlier when the small Winnili tribe chose to stand and fight the powerful Vandal horde rather than accept being slaves. The odds going into this war were just as long as well.

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Holy Roman Empire (from Wikipedia):

The Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period under a Holy Roman Emperor. The first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was Otto I, crowned in 962. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. It was officially known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation by 1450.

The Empire's territorial extent varied over its history, but at its peak it encompassed the Kingdom of Germany, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Burgundy; territories embracing present-day Germany (except Southern Schleswig), Austria (except Burgenland), Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, the Czech Republic, Slovenia (except Prekmurje), as well as significant parts of modern France (mainly Artois, Alsace, Franche-Comté, Savoie and Lorraine), Italy (mainly Lombardy, Piedmont, Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, and South Tyrol), and present-day Poland (mainly Silesia, Pomerania, and Neumark). For much of its history the Empire consisted of hundreds of smaller sub-units, principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities, as well as other domains. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders.

Holy Roman Emperor (from Wikipedia):

The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a Middle Ages ruler, who as German King had in addition received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope of the Holy Roman Church, and after the 16th century, the elected monarch governing the Holy Roman Empire, a Central European union of territories in existence during the Medieval and the Early Modern period. Charlemagne of the Carolingian Dynasty was the first to receive papal coronation as Emperor of the Romans. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope. The final Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire's final dissolution.

The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was "August Emperor of the Romans." When Charlemagne was crowned in 800, his was styled as "most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire," thus constituting the elements of "Holy" and "Roman" in the imperial title. The word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents. The word Roman was a reflection of the translatio imperii (transfer of rule) principle that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman Emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, a title left unclaimed in the West after the death of Julius Nepos in 480.

Alberto da Giussano and Barbarossa - Part III: Emperor Frederick I

Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor

Excerpts from Wikipedia:

Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 – 10 June 1190) was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March, crowned King of Italy in Pavia in 1154, and finally crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155. He was crowned King of Burgundy at Arles on 30 June 1178. The name Barbarossa came from the northern Italian cities he attempted to rule, and means "red beard."

Rise to power

Eager to restore the Empire to the position it had occupied under Charlemagne and Otto I the Great, the new king saw clearly that the restoration of order in Germany was a necessary preliminary to the enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy. Issuing a general order for peace, he made lavish concessions to the nobles. Abroad, Frederick intervened in the Danish civil war between Svend III and Valdemar I of Denmark and began negotiations with the East Roman emperor, Manuel I Comnenus.

It was probably about this time that the king obtained papal assent for the annulment of his childless marriage with Adelheid of Vohburg, on the grounds of consanguinity (his great-great-grandfather was a brother of Adela's great-great-great-grandmother, making them fourth cousins, once removed). He then made a vain effort to obtain a bride from the court of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick had communicated the news of his election to Pope Eugene III, but had neglected to ask for the papal confirmation. In March 1153, Frederick concluded the treaty of Constance with the Pope whereby, in return for his coronation, he promised to defend the papacy, to make no peace with king Roger II of Sicily or other enemies of the Church without the consent of Eugene and to help Eugene regain control of the city of Rome.

Reign and wars in Italy

Frederick undertook six expeditions into Italy. In the first he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome by Pope Adrian IV, following the suppression by Imperial forces of the republican city commune led by Arnold of Brescia. During the 1155 campaign in Rome, Frederick quickly allied forces with Pope Adrian IV to regain the city. The major opposition was led by Arnold of Brescia, a student of Abelard. Arnold was captured and hanged for treason and rebellion. Despite his unorthodox teaching concerning theology, Arnold was not charged with heresy. Frederick left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a new and more formidable campaign.

In June 1158, Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, accompanied by Henry the Lion and his Saxon troops. This expedition resulted in the establishment of imperial officers in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt and capture of Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with Pope Alexander III. In response to his excommunication by the pope in 1160, Frederick declared his support for Antipope Victor IV. Frederick attempted to convoke a joint council with King Louis of France in 1162 to decide the issue of who should be pope. Louis came near the meeting site but, when he became aware that Frederick had stacked the votes for Alexander, Louis decided not to attend the council. As a result the issue was not resolved at that time.

The political result of the struggle with Pope Alexander was that the Norman state of Sicily and Pope Alexander III formed an alliance against Frederick. Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick prevented the escalation of conflicts between Henry the Lion from Saxony and a number of neighbouring princes who were growing weary of Henry's power, influence and territorial gains. He also severely punished the citizens of Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold. The next visit to Italy in 1163 saw his plans for the conquest of Sicily ruined by the formation of a powerful league against him, brought together mainly by opposition to imperial taxes.

In 1164 Frederick took what are believed to be the relics of the "Biblical Magi" (the Wise Men or Three Kings) from Milan and gave them as a gift (or as loot) to the Archbishop of Cologne, Rainald of Dassel. The relics had great religious significance and could be counted upon to draw pilgrims from all over Christendom. Today they are kept in the Shrine of the Three Kings in the Cologne cathedral.

Frederick then focused on restoring peace in the Rhineland, where he organized a magnificent celebration of the canonization of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) at Aachen. In October 1166, he went once more on journey to Italy to secure the claim of his Antipope Paschal III, and the coronation of his wife Beatrice as Holy Roman Empress. This time, Henry the Lion refused to join Frederick on his Italian trip, tending instead to his own disputes with neighbors and his continuing expansion into Slavic territories in northeastern Germany. Frederick's forces achieved a great victory over the Romans at the Battle of Monte Porzio, but his campaign was stopped by the sudden outbreak of an epidemic (malaria or the plague), which threatened to destroy the Imperial army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years.

Later years

In 1174, Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy but was opposed by the pro-papal Lombard League (now joined by Venice, Sicily and Constantinople) which had previously formed to stand against him. The cities of northern Italy had become exceedingly wealthy through trade, and represented a marked turning point in the transition from medieval feudalism. While continental feudalism had remained strong socially and economically, it was in deep political decline by the time of Frederick Barbarossa. When the northern Italian cities inflicted a defeat on Frederick, the European world was shocked that such a thing could happen. With the refusal of Henry the Lion to bring help to Italy, the campaign was a complete failure.

Frederick was able to march through Northern Italy and occupy Rome with his self-appointed Antipope Paschal III, but the Lombards rose up behind him while a severe fever crippled his army. Frederick suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Legnano near Milan, on 29 May 1176, where he was wounded and for some time was believed to be dead. This battle marked the turning point in Frederick's claim to empire. He had no choice other than to begin negotiations for peace with Alexander III and the Lombard League. In the Peace of Anagni in 1176, Frederick recognized Alexander III as Pope and in the Peace of Venice, 1177, Frederick and Alexander III were formally reconciled. The scene was similar to that which had occurred between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor at Canossa a century earlier.

The conflict was the same as that resolved in the Concordat of Worms. Did the Holy Roman Emperor have the power to name the pope and bishops? The Investiture controversy from previous centuries had been brought to a tendentious peace with the Concordat of Worms and affirmed in the First Council of the Lateran. Now it had recurred, in a slightly different form. Frederick had to humble himself before Pope Alexander III at Venice. The Emperor acknowledged the Pope's sovereignty over the Papal States, and in return Alexander acknowledged the Emperor's overlordship of the Imperial Church. Also in the Peace of Venice, a truce was made with the Lombard cities,which took effect in August, 1178. But the grounds for a permanent peace were established only in 1183, when, in the Peace of Constance, Frederick conceded their right to freely elect town magistrates. By this move, Frederick recovered his nominal domination over Italy. This became his chief means of applying pressure on the papacy.

Frederick and the Justinian code

Because of the increase in wealth of the trading cities of northern Italy, there occurred a revival in the study of the Justinian Code. This was a Latin legal system which had become extinct in earlier centuries. Legal scholars renewed its application. It is speculated that Pope Gregory VII personally encouraged the Justinian rule of law, and possessed a copy of it. Corpus Iuris Civilis (Justinian Body of Civil Law) has been described as the greatest code of law ever devised. It envisaged the law of the state as a reflection of natural moral law, the principle of rationality in the universe. By the time Frederick assumed the throne, this legal system was well established on both sides of the Alps. He was the first to utilize the availability of the new professional class of lawyers. The Civil Law allowed Frederick to use these lawyers to administer his kingdom in a logical and consistent manner. It also provided a framework to legitimize his claim to the right to rule both Germany and northern Italy. In the old days of Henry VI and Henry V, the claim of divine right of kings had been severely undermined by the Investiture controversy. The Church had won that argument in the common man's mind. There was no divine right for the German king to also control the church by naming both bishops and popes. The institution of the Justinian code was used, perhaps unscrupulously, by Frederick to lay claim to divine powers.

In Germany, Frederick was a political realist, taking what he could and leaving the rest. In Italy, he tended to be a romantic reactionary, reveling in the antiquarian spirit of the age, exemplified by a revival of classical studies and Roman law. It was through the use of the restored Justinian code that Frederick came to view himself a the new Roman emperor. Roman law gave a rational purpose, for the existence of Frederick and his imperial ambitions. It was a counterweight to the claims of the Church to have authority because of divine revelation. The Church was opposed to Frederick for ideological reasons, not the least of which was the humanist nature found in the revival of the old Roman legal system. When Pepin the Short sought to become king of the Franks, the church needed military protection. Pepin found it convenient to make an ally of the pope. Frederick desired to put the pope aside and claim the crown of old Rome simply because he was in the likeness of the greatest emperors of the pre-Christian era. Pope Adrian IV was naturally opposed to this view and undertook a vigorous propaganda campaign which was designed to diminish Frederick and his ambition. To a large extent, this was successful.

Charismatic leader

Comparison has been made between Henry II of England and Frederick Barbarossa. Both were considered to be the greatest and most charismatic leaders of the age. Each had a rare combination of qualities which made them appear to be superhuman to their contemporaries. They possessed longevity, boundless ambition, extraordinary organizing skill, and greatness on the battlefield. They were handsome and proficient in courtly skills, without appearing effeminate or affected. Both came to the throne in the prime of manhood. Each had an element of learning, without being considered impractical intellectuals, but rather more inclined to practicality. Each found himself in the possession of new legal institutions which were put to creative use in governing. Both Henry and Frederick were viewed to be sufficiently and formally devout to the teachings of the Church, without being moved to the extremes of spirituality seen in the great saints of the twelfth century. In making final decisions, each relied solely upon their own judgment. Both were interested in gathering as much power as they could.

Frederick's charisma led to a fantastic juggling act which over a quarter of a century, restored the imperial authority in the German states. His formidable enemies defeated him on almost every side, yet, in the end, he emerged triumphant. When Frederick came to the throne, the prospects for the revival of German imperial power were extremely thin. The great German princes had increased their power and land holdings. The king had been left with only the traditional family domains and a vestige of power over the bishops and abbeys. The backwash of the Investiture controversy had left the German states in continuous turmoil. Rival states were in perpetual war. These conditions allowed Frederick to be both warrior and occasional peace-maker, both to his advantage.

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There is a lot more information about Emperor Frederick I, or as he is more widely known "Barbarossa." He truly affected the northern subalpine nations so much, that his nickname has reigned loudly down through history. The historical record seems to show him not as much a tyrant as he was an aggressive imperialist, and one with a lot of power. Then again, in the preview for the upcoming movie 'Barbarossa', he is shown cutting off a man's ear, so maybe we need to keep this as an open question.

Of further significance to us today, is that there have been four times in history that the closely-related subalpine nations have become "one nation." First, through Etruscan civilization, which at it's peak encompassed the vast majority of the north. Second, through Gallia Cisalpina, as the Roman's called the region of the Celto-Ligurian tribal culture. Third, and the most "administratively proactive" was the Langbard Kingdom. And fourth, through the Lombard League(s).

Alberto da Giussano and Barbarossa - Part II: Alberto da Giussano

Alberto da Giussano, a native of Lombardy, was a legendary Guelph warrior during the wars of the Lombard League against Frederick Barbarossa in 12th century. Fourteenth century Milanese chroniclers attributed him the deed of forming the "Company of Death" which defended the Carroccio of the League at the Battle of Legnano. Lega Nord uses, as it's emblem, an image inspired by the statue of him erected at Legnano in 1900.

Some anti-Northern League sources claim that some historical aspects involving da Giussano are a myth. This record does have some historical merit, but why this is even relevant anyway is a mystery to me. It's like fighting over whether or not William Wallace tied his left shoe first before the Battle of Sterling, RATHER than acknowledge the significance of the battle itself!

Alberto da Giussano seems to be the main player, along with German Emperor Fredrick I, in the upcoming Italian movie 'Barbarossa.' I think part of the significance of da Giussano, like William Wallace, was the concept of one common man standing up to an extremely powerful imperial dictator, and winning. The old American ideal of loving an underdog is exemplified here I think.

When looking at the excerpts of 'Barbarossa', it gives the appearance of a classic Italian movie. A certain passion and purity comes through it seems. I'm looking forward to it.

[8-12-10 Addition: The following link is for the Alberto da Giussano Wikipedia webpage]

Lega Nord in Portland, Oregon??

As amazing as it may seem, it appears that Lega Nord (Northern League) held a meeting in Portland, Oregon last month to launch the Padani nel Mondo (Padanians in the World) concept into this area of the world. Jimmy Moglia, a native of Torino, will be running the operation. He may have some type of dual citizenship. Lega Nord already has a branch office in Argentina. Also, we know that they have had a North American representative to process a scattering of votes from "Italians working abroad."

This development did come as a surprise to us. Especially considering that Padani nel Mondo doesn't seem to even have a website! It seems unlikely that they will be able to reach the long disconnected cousins on America's west coast. We'll just have to wait and see. We do know that Lombardi nel Mondo - Area Nord America, a totally separate organization, has made no effort to connect with Americans, and seems to be for Italians working abroad only.

What is Leaguism?

"Leaguism," sometimes spelled "Leagueism," is a political ideology which attempts to combine the better aspects of the right and left, and mold them together under a nationalistic banner. It is the ideology which was invented by the Lega Nord party in Northern Italy.

The name Lega Nord (Northern League in English) is taken from the Lombard League. The Lombard League which was the alliance of Northern Italian city states in the middle ages, which fought for and won it's independence on several occasions from the Germanic Holy Roman Empire.

Leaguism is the antithesis of Imperialism, Globalism, and central governance, so it is somewhat similar to Libertarianism. It not only respects, but fosters and encourages the local cultures of regions, provinces, and cities. Leaguism is sometimes synonymous with regionalism or secessionism. Whenever a city, anywhere in the world, is touted as an "International City," that always spells the decline of the local culture.

Although attacked as Fascist or Communist by it's Monopoly Capitalist and Social Marxist opponents, it is nothing of the sort. If Globalism (Fabian Socialism) is the fusion of Monopoly Capitalism and Social Marxism, then Leaguism attempts to take pure Capitalism and pure Democracy and merge them in practice (not as overriding dictatorial systems) in a similar manner as was done in early America.

Leaguism is not to be confused with "Land Leaguism" or "Collectivism." It attempts to take the best aspects of both individualism and regional identity. You could say that it would tout the individual, the region, and the nation as "sovereigns." It is ANYTHING but Communist or Fascist.

Padania, Buenos Aires Province & Northern California

Last evening, I was viewing some old postings from the Lega Nord message board. The PAL was listed as one of their topics. It was clear that most of the posters were poking fun at some of the perceived "ideology." We don't have any political idealogy, as we're not a political group! I guess it was a form of "Italian humor," making fun of new things that are introduced.

I know that the "Padani nel Mondo" (Padanians in the World) wing of the Northern League has indeed reached out to "Padanian-Argentinians." This brings up the issue of how one should deal with those who we (as individuals or groups) would like to reach out to, and the methodology of doing this. I feel that many Italians and Padanians, or even Europeans for that matter, have a "Parent-Child Complex" when it comes to dealing with those around the world who are descended from their nation(s). Something like "Oh, they're trying to be Italian."

Of course, we're not "Italian," "Padanian," or "European!" Geeez. I was born in San Francisco! My parents were born in Ironwood, Michigan. Gimme a break! We are indeed "here." Once I even had a "Keyboard Commando" accuse me of "trying to effect politics in his county." LOL Pleeease! Naturally we would like to connect with Padanians, Padanian-Australians, etc.

If you want to connect with someone or something, just say so. We don't have to fall all over someone. I'm not going to twist anybody's arm. So to answer that queston: No, I don't "want to be Italian" in any type of nationalistic standpoint. We have our national problems here, like the North American Union or NAFTA Superhighway that nobody wants, and has not been put up for public debate. But socially, YES, we DO want to connect with "cousins" overseas. Definitely.

One of the "unpadanian ideas" that was made fun of was that "Rome" and "Romans" (in a modern sense) were "Padanian." In fact, with recent changes in the political aparatus of Lega Nord, even Tuscany is questioned as being "part of Padania." Again, the "Parent-Child Complex." After all, doesn't a parent always have a little advantage over even their grown child? LOL They really seem to have that attitude. We're not in the Lega Nord party, nor are we in the same social setting as they are. We don't really have distinctions between Ligurians, Tuscans, or Venetians. The millenium+ long border between "Naples & Sicily" and the Northern Italian states and Roman state was in "southern Lazio."

Also, they all seem to hate the government in Rome, in the same way that American dissidents hate the government in Washington D.C. They seem to totally disown Rome. But that's the government they have a grievence with, NOT the Roman people!! So, in conclusion, that "social-cultural structure" doesn't even apply to us.

Lastly, Lega Nord symbolically leans heavily on Nordic Lombard or Celtic roots. Well, I respectfully disagree. To me, the soul of North Italy is the Etruscans and other Italic tribes, which I refer to just as "Etruscan." Someone told me, and I can't confirm or deny this, that there were only about 30,000 Lombards who invaded Italy, a relatively small number. The Kingdom of the Lombards was significant in that it tied together, in an administrative sense, virtually all of "Padania." So somehow I view it as being a "Padania" where the symbolic flag is Lombard, but the soul is Etruscan.

I should end by pointing out that we DO have some allies in Lega Nord, but they were not really able to defend us in this particular debate due to the nature of the hard-nosed political debate. The hard liners want it both ways. They want to tease us that we're "trying to be Padanian," while at the same time holding us up to their own social and political standards! However, you don't have to tell me, "communication, communication."